Is PSA Still the Best Marker in Diagnosis and Monitoring of Prostate Cancer?

Alpaslan Akbaş; Mohamed Ismat Abdulmajed; Murat Tolga Gülpınar; Eyüp Burak Sancak

doi:10.15197/sabad.1.12.40

Full Text (PDF)

Alpaslan Akbaş ¹ ^* , Mohamed Ismat Abdulmajed ², Murat Tolga Gülpınar ¹, Eyüp Burak Sancak ¹

More Detail

¹ Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Urology 17100 Çanakkale,Turkey² Wrexham Maelor Hospital, Betsi Cadwaladr University Health Board, Department of Urology, Wrexham, UK^* Corresponding Author

Abstract

Prostate cancer is the second most common cancer in males. At an early stage, prostate cancer barely causes any symptoms. The presence of symptoms upon presentation usually implies the presence of locally-advanced or metastatic disease. Therefore, early detection of prostate cancer is a necessity. Serum Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) test and Digital Rectal Examination (DRE) are used for early detection by the urologist. However serum PSA level is not only affected by the tumours but also other factors. The limitations of serum PSA test led to the introduction and application of various PSA derivatives to improve test sensitivity and specificity. In this review article, we provide a literature review and analysis of the currently available PSA test and its derivatives compared to new and developing potential tumour markers for detection and monitoring of prostate cancer.

Keywords

PSA derivates
Prostate cancer
tumour marker

License

This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Article Type: Review Article

EUR J GEN MED, Volume 12, Issue 2, April 2015, 187-193

https://doi.org/10.15197/sabad.1.12.40

Publication date: 15 Apr 2015

Article Views: 2053

Article Downloads: 1079

Open Access References How to cite this article

References

Parkin DM, Bray F, Ferlay J, Pisani P. Global cancer statistics, 2002. CA Cancer J Clin 2005;55(2):74-108.
Ries LAG, Melbert D, Krapcho M, Stinchcomb DG, Howlader N, Horner MJ, et al. SEER cancer statistics review. 2011.
Wein AJ, Kavoussi LR, Novick AC, Partin AW, Peters CA. Campbell-Walsh Urology. USA: Saunders; 2011. p. 2763-4.
Okotie OT, Roehl KA, Han M, Loeb S, Gashti SN, Catalona WJ. Characteristics of prostate cancer detected by digital rectal examination only. Urology 2007;70(6):1117-20.
Cooner WH, Mosley BR, Rutherford CL, et al. Prostate cancer detection in a clinical urological practice by ultrasonography, digital rectal examination and prostate specific antigen. J Urol 1990;143(6):1146-52.
Smith DS, Catalona WJ. Interexaminer variability of digital rectal examination in detecting prostate cancer. Urology 1995;45(1):70-4.
Heidenreich A, Bellmunt J, Bolla M, et al. EAU guidelines on prostate cancer. Part 1: screening, diagnosis, and treatment of clinically localised disease. Eur Urol 2011;59(1):61-71.
Chun FK, Briganti A, Gallina A, et al. Prostate-specific antigen improves the ability of clinical stage and biopsy Gleason sum to predict the pathologic stage at radical prostatectomy in the new millennium. Eur Urol 2007;52(4):1067-74.
D'Amico AV, Moul J, Carroll PR, Sun L, Lubeck D, Chen MH. Prostate specific antigen doubling time as a surrogate end point for prostate cancer specific mortality following radical prostatectomy or radiation therapy. J Urol 2004;172(5 Pt 2):S42-6.
Andriole GL, Crawford ED, Grubb RL, et al. Mortality results from a randomized prostate-cancer screening trial. New Engl J Med 2009;360(13):1310-9.
Schroder FH, Hugosson J, Roobol MJ, et al. Screening and prostate-cancer mortality in a randomized European study. New Engl J Med 2009;360(13):1320-8.
Fowler JE, Jr., Bigler SA, Kilambi NK, Land SA. Relationships between prostate-specific antigen and prostate volume in black and white men with benign prostate biopsies. Urology 1999;53(6):1175-8.
Oesterling JE, Jacobsen SJ, Chute CG, et al. Serum prostate-specific antigen in a community-based population of healthy men. Establishment of age-specific reference ranges. JAMA 1993;270(7):860-4.
Morgentaler A, Bruning CO, 3rd, DeWolf WC. Occult prostate cancer in men with low serum testosterone levels. JAMA 1996;276(23):1904-6.
Payne H, Cornford P. Prostate-specific antigen: an evolving role in diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment evaluation in prostate cancer. Urol Oncol 2011;29(6):593-601.
Young CY, Andrews PE, Montgomery BT, Tindall DJ. Tissuespecific and hormonal regulation of human prostate-specific glandular kallikrein. Biochemistry 1992;31(3):818-24.
Yousef GM, Luo LY, Diamandis EP. Identification of novel human kallikrein-like genes on chromosome 19q13.3- q13.4. Anticancer Res 1999;19(4B):2843-52.
Pienta KJ. Critical appraisal of prostate-specific antigen in prostate cancer screening: 20 years later. Urology 2009;73(5 Suppl):S11-20.
Shah JB, Reese AC, McKiernan JM, Benson MC. PSA updated: still relevant in the new millennium? Eur Urol 2005;47(4):427-32.
Lilja H, Ulmert D, Vickers AJ. Prostate-specific antigen and prostate cancer: prediction, detection and monitoring. Nat Rev Cancer 2008;8(4):268-78.
Nadler RB, Humphrey PA, Smith DS, Catalona WJ, Ratliff TL. Effect of inflammation and benign prostatic hyperplasia on elevated serum prostate specific antigen levels. J Urol 1995;154(2 Pt 1):407-13.
Klein LT, Lowe FC. The effects of prostatic manipulation on prostate-specific antigen levels. Urol Clin North Am 1997;24(2):293-7.
Crawford ED, Schutz MJ, Clejan S, et al. The effect of digital rectal examination on prostate-specific antigen levels. JAMA 1992;267(16):2227-8.
Roehrborn CG, Boyle P, Nickel JC, Hoefner K, Andriole G. Efficacy and safety of a dual inhibitor of 5-alpha-reductase types 1 and 2 (dutasteride) in men with benign prostatic hyperplasia. Urology 2002;60(3):434-41.
Parekh N, Lin Y, Marcella S, Kant AK, Lu-Yao G. Associations of lifestyle and physiologic factors with prostate-specific antigen concentrations: evidence from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2001-2004). Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2008;17(9):2467-72.
Smith DS, Catalona WJ, Herschman JD. Longitudinal screening for prostate cancer with prostate-specific antigen. JAMA 1996;276(16):1309-15.
Hoedemaeker RF, Rietbergen JB, Kranse R, Schroder FH, van der Kwast TH. Histopathological prostate cancer characteristics at radical prostatectomy after population based screening. J Urol 2000;164(2):411-5.
Thompson IM, Pauler DK, Goodman PJ, et al. Prevalence of prostate cancer among men with a prostate-specific antigen level < or =4.0 ng per milliliter. New Engl J Med 2004;350(22):2239-46.
Thompson IM, Ankerst DP, Chi C, Lucia MS, et al. Operating characteristics of prostate-specific antigen in men with an initial PSA level of 3.0 ng/ml or lower. JAMA 2005;294(1):66-70.
Cookson MS, Aus G, Burnett AL, et al. Variation in the definition of biochemical recurrence in patients treated for localized prostate cancer: the American Urological Association Prostate Guidelines for Localized Prostate Cancer Update Panel report and recommendations for a standard in the reporting of surgical outcomes. J Urol 2007;177(2):540-5.
Horwitz EM, Thames HD, Kuban DA, et al. Definitions of biochemical failure that best predict clinical failure in patients with pros- tate cancer treated with external beam radiation alone: a multi-institutional pooled analysis. J Urol 2005;173(3):797-802.
Freedland SJ, Humphreys EB, Mangold LA, et al. Risk of prostate cancer- specific mortality following biochemical recurrence after radical prostatectomy. JAMA 2005;294(4):433-9.
Horwitz EM, Levy LB, Thames HD, et al. Biochemical and clinical signifi- cance of the posttreatment prostate-specific antigen bounce for prostate cancer patients treated with exter- nal beam radiation therapy alone: a multiinstitutional pooled analysis. Cancer 2006;107(7):1496-502.
Shah RB, Mehra R, Chinnaiyan AM, et al. Androgenindependent prostate cancer is a heterogeneous group of diseases: lessons from a rapid autopsy program. Cancer Res 2004;64(24):9209-16.
Rommel FM, Agusta VE, Breslin JA, et al. The use of prostate specific anti- gen and prostate specific antigen density in the diagnosis of prostate cancer in a community based urology prac- tice. J Urol 1994;151(1):88-93.
Seaman E, Whang M, Olsson CA, Katz A, Cooner WH, Benson MC. PSA density (PSAD). Role in patient evaluation and management. Urol Clin North Am 1993;20(4):653-63.
Bazinet M, Meshref AW, Trudel C, et al. Prospective evaluation of prostate-specific antigen density and systematic biopsies for early detection of prostatic carcinoma. Urology 1994;43(1):44-51.
Djavan B, Zlotta AR, Remzi M, et al. Total and transition zone prostate volume and age: how do they affect the utility of PSA-based diagnostic parameters for early prostate cancer detection? Urology 1999;54(5):846-52.
Vickers AJ, Savage C, O'Brien MF, Lilja H. Systematic review of pretreatment prostate-specific antigen ve- locity and doubling time as predictors for prostate can- cer. J Clin Oncol 2009;27(3):398-403.
Raaijmakers R, Blijenberg BG, Finlay JA, et al. Prostate cancer detec- tion in the prostate specific antigen range of 2.0 to 3.9 ng/ml: value of percent free prostate specific antigen on tumour detection and tumour aggressiveness. J Urol 2004;171(6 Pt 1):2245-9.
Christensson A, Bjork T, Nilsson O, et al. Serum prostate specific antigen complexed to alpha 1-antichymotrypsin as an indicator of prostate cancer. J Urol 1993;150(1):100-5.
Catalona WJ, Partin AW, Slawin KM, et al. Use of the percentage of free pros- tate-specific antigen to enhance differentiation of pros- tate cancer from benign prostatic disease: a prospec- tive multicenter clinical trial. JAMA 1998;279(19):1542-7.
Okegawa T, Noda H, Nutahara K, Higashihara E. Comparison of two investigative assays for the complexed prostate-specific antigen in total prostate-specific antigen between 4.1 and 10.0 ng/mL. Urology 2000;55(5):700-4.
Peter J, Unverzagt C, Krogh TN, Vorm O, Hoesel W. Identification of precursor forms of free prostatespecific antigen in serum of prostate cancer patients by immunosorption and mass spectrometry. Cancer Res 2001;61(3):957-62.
Catalona WJ, Bartsch G, Rittenhouse HG, et al. Serum pro-prostate spe- cific antigen preferentially detects aggressive prostate cancers in men with 2 to 4 ng/ml prostate specific an- tigen. J Urol 2004;171:2239-44.
Mikolajczyk SD, Catalona WJ, Evans CL, et al. Proenzyme forms of prostate-spe- cific antigen in serum improve the detection of prostate cancer. Clin Chem 2004;50(6):1017-25.
Steuber T, Niemela P, Haese A, et al. Association of freeprostate specific antigen subfractions and human glandular kallikrein 2 with volume of benign and malignant prostatic tissue. The Prostate 2005;63(1):13-8.
Rubin MA, Zhou M, Dhanasekaran SM, et al. alpha-Methylacyl coenzyme A racemase as a tissue biomarker for prostate cancer. JAMA 2002;287(13):1662-70.
Ouyang B, Bracken B, Burke B, Chung E, Liang J, Ho SM. A duplex quantitative polymerase chain reaction assay based on quantification of alpha-methylacyl-CoA racemase transcripts and prostate cancer antigen 3 in urine sediments improved diagnostic accuracy for prostate cancer. J Urol 2009;181(6):2508-13.
Getzenberg RH, Pienta KJ, Huang EY, Coffey DS. Identification of nuclear matrix proteins in the cancer and normal rat prostate. Cancer Res 1991;51(24):6514-20.
Dhir R, Vietmeier B, Arlotti J, et al. Early identification of individuals with prostate cancer in negative biopsies. J Urol 2004;171(4):1419-23.
Leman ES, Cannon GW, Trock BJ, S et al. EPCA-2: a highly specific serum marker for prostate cancer. Urology 2007;69(4):714-20.
de Bono JS, Scher HI, Montgomery RB, et al. Circulating tumour cells predict survival benefit from treatment in metastatic castration- resistant prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2008;14(19):6302-9.
Okegawa T, Nutahara K, Higashihara E. Prognostic sig- nificance of circulating tumour cells in patients with hor- mone refractory prostate cancer. J Urol 2009;181(3):1091-7.
Ang JE, Olmos D, de Bono JS. CYP17 blockade by abiraterone: further evidence for frequent continued hormone-dependence in castration-resistant prostate cancer. Br J Cancer 2009;100(5):671-5.
Groskopf J, Aubin SM, Deras IL, et al. APTIMA PCA3 molecular urine test: development of a method to aid in the diagnosis of prostate cancer. Clin Chem 2006;52(6):1089-95.
van Gils MP, Hessels D, van Hooij O, et al. The timeresolved fluorescence- based PCA3 test on urinary sediments after digital rectal examination; a Dutch multicenter validation of the diag- nostic performance. Clin Cancer Res 2007;13(3):939-43.
Neuhouser ML, Platz EA, Till C, et al. Insulin-like growth factors and insulin-like growth factor-binding proteins and prostate cancer risk: results from the prostate cancer prevention trial. Cancer Prev Res 2013;6(2):91-9.

How to cite this article

Vancouver

Akbaş A, Abdulmajed MI, Gülpınar MT, Sancak EB. Is PSA Still the Best Marker in Diagnosis and Monitoring of Prostate Cancer?. EUR J GEN MED. 2015;12(2):187-93. https://doi.org/10.15197/sabad.1.12.40

APA

Akbaş, A., Abdulmajed, M. I., Gülpınar, M. T., & Sancak, E. B. (2015). Is PSA Still the Best Marker in Diagnosis and Monitoring of Prostate Cancer?. European Journal of General Medicine, 12(2), 187-193. https://doi.org/10.15197/sabad.1.12.40

AMA

Akbaş A, Abdulmajed MI, Gülpınar MT, Sancak EB. Is PSA Still the Best Marker in Diagnosis and Monitoring of Prostate Cancer?. EUR J GEN MED. 2015;12(2), 187-193. https://doi.org/10.15197/sabad.1.12.40

Chicago

Akbaş, Alpaslan, Mohamed Ismat Abdulmajed, Murat Tolga Gülpınar, and Eyüp Burak Sancak. "Is PSA Still the Best Marker in Diagnosis and Monitoring of Prostate Cancer?". European Journal of General Medicine 2015 12 no. 2 (2015): 187-193. https://doi.org/10.15197/sabad.1.12.40

Harvard

Akbaş, A., Abdulmajed, M. I., Gülpınar, M. T., and Sancak, E. B. (2015). Is PSA Still the Best Marker in Diagnosis and Monitoring of Prostate Cancer?. European Journal of General Medicine, 12(2), pp. 187-193. https://doi.org/10.15197/sabad.1.12.40

MLA

Akbaş, Alpaslan et al. "Is PSA Still the Best Marker in Diagnosis and Monitoring of Prostate Cancer?". European Journal of General Medicine, vol. 12, no. 2, 2015, pp. 187-193. https://doi.org/10.15197/sabad.1.12.40

Electronic Journal of General Medicine

Abstract

Keywords

License